Epidemiology of Prostate Cancer
Epidemiology of Prostate Cancer
US Oncology Review 2005
Published: October 2008
Published: October 2008
Impact of Screeningon Diagnosis
The American Cancer Society recommends that all men aged 50 years and above should undergo annual digital rectal examinations (DREs) and PSA testing.53 In cases where there is a high risk of prostate cancer, such as with African-Americans or those with a family history of prostate cancer, men should be screened from age 45, and if there are multiple relatives involved, they should be screened from age 40.Those who have abnormal findings should undergo transrectal ultrasound and biopsy for definitive diagnosis. Studies of DRE and PSA have shown that in men aged over 50, DRE or PSA was found to be abnormal in 36% and prostate cancer was diagnosed by biopsy in 6.4%. Abnormal findings were higher in African-Americans and those with positive family history, occuring in 34% and 42% respectively with positive biopsies being 10.3% and 10.5%, respectively.54 Screening had different positive predictive values in different groups, the highest being in African-Americans (48%), followed by those with positive family history (38%), and the lowest in those without any risk factors (30%).55 PSA density, PSA velocity, ratio of free and total PSA and age-specific PSA are some of the determinants used to increase specificity of PSA screening and decrease negative biopsies.55
Screening and Impact on Incidence of Prostate Cancer
PSA screening in different countries has altered the pattern of incidence. Data from the SEER program show that the incidence of prostate cancer in the US increased steadily during the 1980s, with an increase of 85% between 1987 and 1992, and reached an ageadjusted value of 190.1 per 100,000 men.56 The incidence subsequently decreased by 29% between 1992 and 1996 and increased again to levels seen before PSA screening.
Screening and Mortality of Prostate Cancer
Mortality data from the SEER program show that rates increased gradually from 1976 when it was 22.1 per 100,000 to 1992 (26.7 per 100,000), but decreased again through to 1997 (15.9 per 100,000).The decrease observed in mortality during the decade of 1990s was mainly due to a reduction of death from distant disease, while that due to loco-regional disease actually increased during the 1990s until 1997 when it decreased slightly in Whites but not in African- Americans.56–58 It is also important to recognize that 50% of mortality is cancer-specific while the rest is due to co-morbid conditions like cardiovascular disease.59
Screening and Stage and Grade of Prostate Cancer
DRE is less sensitive than PSA in detecting tumors at an earlier stage. Of all tumors detected, 75% are now due to PSA screening.60 The number of patients with regional or distant disease has reduced considerably.The proportion of patients presenting with metastatic disease decreased from 17% in the late 1980s to 4% during late 1990s.61 The proportion of patients presenting with extracapsular spread decreased from 15% to 6% over this period.Those presenting with T1 tumors increased from 14% to 51%, and this stage migration has been seen across all ethnicities in the US.
Screening did not cause a change in the grade of prostate cancer in patients to a lower grade. Most of the tumors are moderately differentiated accounting for 60%, with about 20% poorly differentiated and about 20% being of low or unknown grade. Histologic grade is an important prognostic factor for survival. With conservative management, 15-year mortality rate increases from 4% to 7% for men with well differentiated tumors to 60% to 87% for those with poorly differentiated tumors.62
Chemoprevention
A total of over 11 randomized studies are accruing patients for prostate cancer prevention. Several studies are contributing to data that show a considerable number of cancer deaths can be prevented by changes in diet and life-style or by using medications. Some of the chemoprevention studies include the Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial, the Lycopene Trial, the Dutasteride Trial, the Rofecoxib Study, the Physicians Health Study, and the Isoflavones Study.63 The results of the Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial, where 5mg of Finasteride was administered to 18,881 men, showed a decrease in prostate cancer prevalence of 24.8%.64
Conclusion
Various epidemiological studies would help in devising strategies to reduce the incidence of prostate cancer. Prostate cancer screening has changed the pattern of disease to earlier-stage but has not caused a shift in histology to a lower grade.
References:
REFERENCES
1. Parkin D M, Bray F I and Devesa S S,"Cancer burden in the year 2000.The global picture", Eur. J.Cancer (2001), 37 Suppl 8: pp. S4-66.
2. American Cancer Society, Cancer Facts & Figures 2004, November 2004.
3. Quinn M and Babb P, "Patterns and trends in prostate cancer incidence, survival, prevalence and mortality. Part I: international comparisons", BJU Int. (2002), 90 (2): pp. 162-173.
4. Lunenfeld B, "The ageing male: demographics and challenges",World J. Urol. (2002), 20 (1): pp. 11-16.
5. Jemal A, Murray T, Samuels A, Ghafoor A,Ward E and Thun M J,"Cancer statistics, 2003", CA Cancer J. Clin. (2003), 53 (1): pp. 5-26.
6. Carter H B, Piantadosi S and Isaacs J T,"Clinical evidence for and implications of the multistep development of prostate cancer", J. Urol. (1990), 143 (4): pp. 742-746.
7. Scher H I, Issac J T and Zelefsky M J,"Prostate cancer", In:Abeloff M D,Armitage J O, Licher A S (eds), Clinical Oncology 2nd edn. New York: Churchill Livingstone, pp. 1,823-1,884.
8. Clegg L X, Li F P, Hankey B F, Chu K and Edwards B K, "Cancer survival among US whites and minorities: a SEER (Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results) Program population-based study", Arch. Intern. Med. (2002), 162 (17): pp. 1,985-1,993.
9. Bianco F J Jr,Wood D P Jr, Grignon D J, Sakr W A, Pontes J E and Powell I J, "Prostate cancer stage shift has eliminated the gap in disease-free survival in black and white American men after radical prostatectomy", J.Urol. (2002), 168 (2): pp. 479-482.
10. Merrill R M and Lyon J L, "Explaining the difference in prostate cancer mortality rates between white and black men in the United States", Urology (2000), 55 (5): pp. 730-735.
11. Bratt O, "Hereditary prostate cancer: clinical aspects", J. Urol. (2002), 168 (3): pp. 906-913.
12. Makridakis N M and Reichardt J K, "Molecular epidemiology of androgen-metabolic loci in prostate cancer: predisposition and progression", J. Urol. (2004), 171 (2 Pt 2): pp. S25-28; discussion pp. S28-29.
13. Schaid D J,"The complex genetic epidemiology of prostate cancer", Hum. Mol. Genet. (2004), 13 Spec No 1: pp. R103-121.
14. Lichtenstein P, Holm N V,Verkasalo P K, Iliadou A, Kaprio J, Koskenvuo M et al., "Environmental and heritable factors in the causation of cancer--analyses of cohorts of twins from Sweden, Denmark, and Finland", N. Engl. J. Med. (2000), 343 (2): pp. 78-85.
15. Carter B S, Bova G S, Beaty T H, Steinberg G D, Childs B, Isaacs W B et al., "Hereditary prostate cancer: epidemiologic and clinical features", J. Urol. (1993), 150 (3): pp. 797-802.
16.Tulinius H, Egilsson V, Olafsdottir G H and Sigvaldason H, "Risk of prostate, ovarian, and endometrial cancer among relatives of women with breast cancer", BMJ (1992), 305 (6858): pp. 855-857.
17. Isaacs S D, Kiemeney L A, Baffoe-Bonnie A, Beaty T H and Walsh P C,"Risk of cancer in relatives of prostate cancer probands", J. Natl. Cancer Inst. (1995), 87 (13): pp. 991-996.
18. Smith J R, Freije D, Carpten J D, Gronberg H, Xu J, Isaacs S D et al., "Major susceptibility locus for prostate cancer on chromosome 1 suggested by a genome-wide search", Science (1996), 274 (5291): pp. 1,371-1,374.
19. Gronberg H, Isaacs S D, Smith J R, Carpten J D, Bova G S, Freije D et al., "Characteristics of prostate cancer in families potentially linked to the hereditary prostate cancer 1 (HPC1) locus", JAMA (1997), 278 (15): pp. 1,251-1,255.
20. Xu J, "Combined analysis of hereditary prostate cancer linkage to 1q24-25: results from 772 hereditary prostate cancer families from the International Consortium for Prostate Cancer Genetics", Am. J. Hum. Genet. (2000), 66 (3): pp. 945-957.
21. Carpten J, Nupponen N, Isaacs S, Sood R, Robbins C, Xu J et al., "Germline mutations in the ribonuclease L gene in families showing linkage with HPC1", Nat. Genet. (2002), 30 (2): pp. 181-184.
22. Nakazato H, Suzuki K, Matsui H, Ohtake N, Nakata S and Yamanaka H,"Role of genetic polymorphisms of the RNASEL gene on familial prostate cancer risk in a Japanese population", Br. J. Cancer (2003), 89 (4): pp. 691-696.
23. Wiklund F, Jonsson B A, Brookes A J, Stromqvist L,Adolfsson J, Emanuelsson M et al.,"Genetic analysis of the RNASEL gene in hereditary, familial, and sporadic prostate cancer", Clin. Cancer Res. (2004), 10 (21): pp. 7,150-7,156.
24. Simard J, Dumont M, Soucy P and Labrie F,"Perspective: prostate cancer susceptibility genes", Endocrinology (2002), 143 (6): pp. 2,029-2,040.
25. Makridakis N M, Ross R K, Pike M C, Crocitto L E, Kolonel L N, Pearce C L et al., "Association of mis-sense substitution in SRD5A2 gene with prostate cancer in African-American and Hispanic men in Los Angeles, USA", Lancet (1999), 354 (9183): pp. 975-978.
26. Shimizu H, Ross R K, Bernstein L,Yatani R, Henderson B E and Mack T M, "Cancers of the prostate and breast among Japanese and white immigrants in Los Angeles County", Br. J. Cancer (1991), 63 (6): pp. 963-966.
27. Fleshner N, Bagnell P S, Klotz L and Venkateswaran V, "Dietary fat and prostate cancer", J. Urol. (2004), 171 (2 Pt 2): pp. S19-24.
28. Whittemore A S, Kolonel L N,Wu A H, John E M, Gallagher R P, Howe G R et al.,"Prostate cancer in relation to diet, physical activity, and body size in blacks, whites, and Asians in the United States and Canada", J. Natl. Cancer Inst. (1995), 87 (9): pp. 652-661.
29. Gronberg H,"Prostate cancer epidemiology", Lancet (2003), 361 (9360): pp. 859-864.
30. Shirai T, Asamoto M,Takahashi S and Imaida K, "Diet and prostate cancer", Toxicology (2002), pp. 181-182, pp. 89-94.
31. Chan J M, Stampfer M J, Giovannucci E, Gann P H, Ma J,Wilkinson P et al.,"Plasma insulin-like growth factor-I and prostate cancer risk: a prospective study", Science (1998), 279 (5350): pp. 563-566.
32. Stattin P, Bylund A, Rinaldi S, Biessy C, Dechaud H, Stenman U H et al., "Plasma insulin-like growth factor-I, insulin-like growth factor-binding proteins, and prostate cancer risk: a prospective study", J. Natl. Cancer Inst. (2000), 92 (23): pp. 1,910-1,917.
33. Miller E C, Giovannucci E, Erdman J W Jr, Bahnson R, Schwartz S J and Clinton S K,"Tomato products, lycopene, and prostate cancer risk", Urol. Clin. North Am. (2002), 29 (1): pp. 83-93.
34. Giovannucci E, Rimm E B, Colditz G A, Stampfer M J, Ascherio A, Chute C C et al.,"A prospective study of dietary fat and risk of prostate cancer", J. Natl. Cancer Inst. (1993), 85 (19): pp. 1,571-1,579.
35. Klein E A,"Selenium: epidemiology and basic science", J. Urol. (2004), 171 (2 Pt 2): pp. S50-53; discussion p. S53.
36. Kristal A R, "Vitamin A, retinoids and carotenoids as chemopreventive agents for prostate cancer", J. Urol. (2004), 171 (2 Pt 2): pp. S54-58; discussion p. S58.
37. Clark L C, Combs G F Jr,Turnbull B W, Slate E H, Chalker D K, Chow J et al., "Effects of selenium supplementation for cancer prevention in patients with carcinoma of the skin", A randomized controlled trial. Nutritional Prevention of Cancer Study Group, JAMA (1996), 276 (24): pp. 1,957-1,963.
38. Heinonen O P, Albanes D,Virtamo J,Taylor P R, Huttunen J K, Hartman A M et al., "Prostate cancer and supplementation with alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene: incidence and mortality in a controlled trial", J. Natl. Cancer Inst. (1998), 90 (6): pp. 440-446.
39. Huggins C and Hodges C V, "Studies on prostate cancer, effect of castration, of estrogen and of androgen injection of serum phosphatases in metastatic carcinoma of the prostate", Cancer Res. (1941), 1: pp. 293-297.
40. Haas G P and Sakr W A,"Epidemiology of prostate cancer", CA Cancer J. Clin. (1997), 47 (5): pp. 273-287
41. Hsing A W,"Hormones and prostate cancer: what's next?", Epidemiol Rev. (2001), 23 (1): pp. 42-58.
42. Calle E E, Rodriguez C,Walker-Thurmond K and Thun M J,"Overweight, obesity, and mortality from cancer in a prospectively studied cohort of U.S. adults", N. Engl. J. Med. (2003), 348 (17): pp. 1,625-1,638.
43. Zhang Y, Kiel D P, Ellison R C, Schatzkin A, Dorgan J F, Kreger B E et al., "Bone mass and the risk of prostate cancer: the Framingham Study", Am. J. Med. (2002), 113 (9): pp. 734-739. Notes: CORPORATE NAME: Framingham Study.
44. Chan J M, Stampfer M J, Ma J, Gann P H, Gaziano J M and Giovannucci E L,"Dairy products, calcium, and prostate cancer risk in the Physicians' Health Study", Am. J. Clin. Nutr. (2001), 74 (4): pp. 549-554.
45. Hickey K, Do K A and Green A,"Smoking and prostate cancer", Epidemiol. Rev. (2001), 23 (1): pp. 115-125
46. Dennis L K and Hayes R B, "Alcohol and prostate cancer", Epidemiol. Rev. (2001), 23 (1): pp. 110-114.
47. Lee I M, Sesso H D, Chen J J and Paffenbarger R S Jr."Does physical activity play a role in the prevention of prostate cancer?", Epidemiol. Rev. (2001), 23 (1): pp. 132-137.
48. Leitzmann M F, Platz E A, Stampfer M J, Willett W C and Giovannucci E, "Ejaculation frequency and subsequent risk of prostate cancer", JAMA (2004), 291 (13): ppp. 1,578-1,586.
49. Peterson H B and Howards S S, "Vasectomy and prostate cancer: the evidence to date", Fertil. Steril. (1998), 70 (2): pp. 201-203. Notes: GENERAL NOTE: PIP:TJ: FERTILITY AND STERILITY.
50. Rosenblatt K A,Wicklund K G and Stanford J L, "Sexual factors and the risk of prostate cancer", Am. J. Epidemiol. (2001), 153 (12): pp. 1,152-1,158.
51. Dennis L K, Lynch C F and Torner J C, "Epidemiologic association between prostatitis and prostate cancer", Urology (2002), 60 (1): pp. 78-83.
52. Platz E A and De Marzo A M, "Epidemiology of inflammation and prostate cancer", J. Urol. (2004), 171 (2 Pt 2): pp. S36-40.
53. Smith R A, Cokkinides V and Eyre H J, "American Cancer Society guidelines for the early detection of cancer, 2003", CA Cancer J. Clin. (2003), 53 (1): pp. 27-43. Notes: CORPORATE NAME:American Cancer Society.
54. Catalona W J, Antenor J A, Roehl K A and Moul J W,"Screening for prostate cancer in high risk populations", J.Urol. (2002), 168 (5): pp. 1,980-1,983; discussion p. 1,983-1,984.
55. Bunting P S,"Screening for prostate cancer with prostate-specific antigen: beware the biases", Clin. Chim.Acta. (2002), 315 (1- 2): pp. 71-97.
56. Sarma A V and Schottenfeld D, "Prostate cancer incidence, mortality, and survival trends in the United States: 1981-2001", Semin. Urol. Oncol. (2002), 20 (1): pp. 3-9.
57. Greenlee R T, Murray T, Bolden S and Wingo P A,"Cancer statistics, 2000", CA Cancer J. Clin. (2000), 50 (1): pp. 7-33.
58.Chu K C,Tarone R E and Freeman H P,"Trends in prostate cancer mortality among black men and white men in the United States", Cancer (2003), 97 (6): pp. 1,507-1,516.
59. Satariano W A, Ragland K E and Van Den Eeden S K, "Cause of death in men diagnosed with prostate carcinoma", Cancer (1998), 83 (6): pp. 1,180-1,188.
60. Carroll P, Coley C, McLeod D, Schellhammer P, Sweat G,Wasson J et al.,"Prostate-specific antigen best practice policy--part II: prostate cancer staging and post-treatment follow-up", Urology (2001), 57 (2): pp. 225-229.
61.Paquette E L, Sun L, Paquette L R, Connelly R, Mcleod D G and Moul J W, "Improved prostate cancer-specific survival and other disease parameters: impact of prostate-specific antigen testing", Urology (2002), 60 (5): pp. 756-759.
62. Albertsen P C, Hanley J A, Gleason D F and Barry M J, "Competing risk analysis of men aged 55 to 74 years at diagnosis managed conservatively for clinically localized prostate cancer", JAMA (1998), 280 (11): pp. 975-980.
63. Barqawi A,Thompson I M and Crawford E D, "Prostate cancer chemoprevention: an overview of United States trials", J. Urol. (2004), 171 (2 Pt 2): pp. S5-8; p. discussion S9.
64. Thompson I M, Klein E A, Lippman S M, Coltman C A and Djavan B, "Prevention of prostate cancer with finasteride: US/European perspective", Eur. Urol. (2003), 44 (6): pp. 650-655.
1. Parkin D M, Bray F I and Devesa S S,"Cancer burden in the year 2000.The global picture", Eur. J.Cancer (2001), 37 Suppl 8: pp. S4-66.
2. American Cancer Society, Cancer Facts & Figures 2004, November 2004.
3. Quinn M and Babb P, "Patterns and trends in prostate cancer incidence, survival, prevalence and mortality. Part I: international comparisons", BJU Int. (2002), 90 (2): pp. 162-173.
4. Lunenfeld B, "The ageing male: demographics and challenges",World J. Urol. (2002), 20 (1): pp. 11-16.
5. Jemal A, Murray T, Samuels A, Ghafoor A,Ward E and Thun M J,"Cancer statistics, 2003", CA Cancer J. Clin. (2003), 53 (1): pp. 5-26.
6. Carter H B, Piantadosi S and Isaacs J T,"Clinical evidence for and implications of the multistep development of prostate cancer", J. Urol. (1990), 143 (4): pp. 742-746.
7. Scher H I, Issac J T and Zelefsky M J,"Prostate cancer", In:Abeloff M D,Armitage J O, Licher A S (eds), Clinical Oncology 2nd edn. New York: Churchill Livingstone, pp. 1,823-1,884.
8. Clegg L X, Li F P, Hankey B F, Chu K and Edwards B K, "Cancer survival among US whites and minorities: a SEER (Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results) Program population-based study", Arch. Intern. Med. (2002), 162 (17): pp. 1,985-1,993.
9. Bianco F J Jr,Wood D P Jr, Grignon D J, Sakr W A, Pontes J E and Powell I J, "Prostate cancer stage shift has eliminated the gap in disease-free survival in black and white American men after radical prostatectomy", J.Urol. (2002), 168 (2): pp. 479-482.
10. Merrill R M and Lyon J L, "Explaining the difference in prostate cancer mortality rates between white and black men in the United States", Urology (2000), 55 (5): pp. 730-735.
11. Bratt O, "Hereditary prostate cancer: clinical aspects", J. Urol. (2002), 168 (3): pp. 906-913.
12. Makridakis N M and Reichardt J K, "Molecular epidemiology of androgen-metabolic loci in prostate cancer: predisposition and progression", J. Urol. (2004), 171 (2 Pt 2): pp. S25-28; discussion pp. S28-29.
13. Schaid D J,"The complex genetic epidemiology of prostate cancer", Hum. Mol. Genet. (2004), 13 Spec No 1: pp. R103-121.
14. Lichtenstein P, Holm N V,Verkasalo P K, Iliadou A, Kaprio J, Koskenvuo M et al., "Environmental and heritable factors in the causation of cancer--analyses of cohorts of twins from Sweden, Denmark, and Finland", N. Engl. J. Med. (2000), 343 (2): pp. 78-85.
15. Carter B S, Bova G S, Beaty T H, Steinberg G D, Childs B, Isaacs W B et al., "Hereditary prostate cancer: epidemiologic and clinical features", J. Urol. (1993), 150 (3): pp. 797-802.
16.Tulinius H, Egilsson V, Olafsdottir G H and Sigvaldason H, "Risk of prostate, ovarian, and endometrial cancer among relatives of women with breast cancer", BMJ (1992), 305 (6858): pp. 855-857.
17. Isaacs S D, Kiemeney L A, Baffoe-Bonnie A, Beaty T H and Walsh P C,"Risk of cancer in relatives of prostate cancer probands", J. Natl. Cancer Inst. (1995), 87 (13): pp. 991-996.
18. Smith J R, Freije D, Carpten J D, Gronberg H, Xu J, Isaacs S D et al., "Major susceptibility locus for prostate cancer on chromosome 1 suggested by a genome-wide search", Science (1996), 274 (5291): pp. 1,371-1,374.
19. Gronberg H, Isaacs S D, Smith J R, Carpten J D, Bova G S, Freije D et al., "Characteristics of prostate cancer in families potentially linked to the hereditary prostate cancer 1 (HPC1) locus", JAMA (1997), 278 (15): pp. 1,251-1,255.
20. Xu J, "Combined analysis of hereditary prostate cancer linkage to 1q24-25: results from 772 hereditary prostate cancer families from the International Consortium for Prostate Cancer Genetics", Am. J. Hum. Genet. (2000), 66 (3): pp. 945-957.
21. Carpten J, Nupponen N, Isaacs S, Sood R, Robbins C, Xu J et al., "Germline mutations in the ribonuclease L gene in families showing linkage with HPC1", Nat. Genet. (2002), 30 (2): pp. 181-184.
22. Nakazato H, Suzuki K, Matsui H, Ohtake N, Nakata S and Yamanaka H,"Role of genetic polymorphisms of the RNASEL gene on familial prostate cancer risk in a Japanese population", Br. J. Cancer (2003), 89 (4): pp. 691-696.
23. Wiklund F, Jonsson B A, Brookes A J, Stromqvist L,Adolfsson J, Emanuelsson M et al.,"Genetic analysis of the RNASEL gene in hereditary, familial, and sporadic prostate cancer", Clin. Cancer Res. (2004), 10 (21): pp. 7,150-7,156.
24. Simard J, Dumont M, Soucy P and Labrie F,"Perspective: prostate cancer susceptibility genes", Endocrinology (2002), 143 (6): pp. 2,029-2,040.
25. Makridakis N M, Ross R K, Pike M C, Crocitto L E, Kolonel L N, Pearce C L et al., "Association of mis-sense substitution in SRD5A2 gene with prostate cancer in African-American and Hispanic men in Los Angeles, USA", Lancet (1999), 354 (9183): pp. 975-978.
26. Shimizu H, Ross R K, Bernstein L,Yatani R, Henderson B E and Mack T M, "Cancers of the prostate and breast among Japanese and white immigrants in Los Angeles County", Br. J. Cancer (1991), 63 (6): pp. 963-966.
27. Fleshner N, Bagnell P S, Klotz L and Venkateswaran V, "Dietary fat and prostate cancer", J. Urol. (2004), 171 (2 Pt 2): pp. S19-24.
28. Whittemore A S, Kolonel L N,Wu A H, John E M, Gallagher R P, Howe G R et al.,"Prostate cancer in relation to diet, physical activity, and body size in blacks, whites, and Asians in the United States and Canada", J. Natl. Cancer Inst. (1995), 87 (9): pp. 652-661.
29. Gronberg H,"Prostate cancer epidemiology", Lancet (2003), 361 (9360): pp. 859-864.
30. Shirai T, Asamoto M,Takahashi S and Imaida K, "Diet and prostate cancer", Toxicology (2002), pp. 181-182, pp. 89-94.
31. Chan J M, Stampfer M J, Giovannucci E, Gann P H, Ma J,Wilkinson P et al.,"Plasma insulin-like growth factor-I and prostate cancer risk: a prospective study", Science (1998), 279 (5350): pp. 563-566.
32. Stattin P, Bylund A, Rinaldi S, Biessy C, Dechaud H, Stenman U H et al., "Plasma insulin-like growth factor-I, insulin-like growth factor-binding proteins, and prostate cancer risk: a prospective study", J. Natl. Cancer Inst. (2000), 92 (23): pp. 1,910-1,917.
33. Miller E C, Giovannucci E, Erdman J W Jr, Bahnson R, Schwartz S J and Clinton S K,"Tomato products, lycopene, and prostate cancer risk", Urol. Clin. North Am. (2002), 29 (1): pp. 83-93.
34. Giovannucci E, Rimm E B, Colditz G A, Stampfer M J, Ascherio A, Chute C C et al.,"A prospective study of dietary fat and risk of prostate cancer", J. Natl. Cancer Inst. (1993), 85 (19): pp. 1,571-1,579.
35. Klein E A,"Selenium: epidemiology and basic science", J. Urol. (2004), 171 (2 Pt 2): pp. S50-53; discussion p. S53.
36. Kristal A R, "Vitamin A, retinoids and carotenoids as chemopreventive agents for prostate cancer", J. Urol. (2004), 171 (2 Pt 2): pp. S54-58; discussion p. S58.
37. Clark L C, Combs G F Jr,Turnbull B W, Slate E H, Chalker D K, Chow J et al., "Effects of selenium supplementation for cancer prevention in patients with carcinoma of the skin", A randomized controlled trial. Nutritional Prevention of Cancer Study Group, JAMA (1996), 276 (24): pp. 1,957-1,963.
38. Heinonen O P, Albanes D,Virtamo J,Taylor P R, Huttunen J K, Hartman A M et al., "Prostate cancer and supplementation with alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene: incidence and mortality in a controlled trial", J. Natl. Cancer Inst. (1998), 90 (6): pp. 440-446.
39. Huggins C and Hodges C V, "Studies on prostate cancer, effect of castration, of estrogen and of androgen injection of serum phosphatases in metastatic carcinoma of the prostate", Cancer Res. (1941), 1: pp. 293-297.
40. Haas G P and Sakr W A,"Epidemiology of prostate cancer", CA Cancer J. Clin. (1997), 47 (5): pp. 273-287
41. Hsing A W,"Hormones and prostate cancer: what's next?", Epidemiol Rev. (2001), 23 (1): pp. 42-58.
42. Calle E E, Rodriguez C,Walker-Thurmond K and Thun M J,"Overweight, obesity, and mortality from cancer in a prospectively studied cohort of U.S. adults", N. Engl. J. Med. (2003), 348 (17): pp. 1,625-1,638.
43. Zhang Y, Kiel D P, Ellison R C, Schatzkin A, Dorgan J F, Kreger B E et al., "Bone mass and the risk of prostate cancer: the Framingham Study", Am. J. Med. (2002), 113 (9): pp. 734-739. Notes: CORPORATE NAME: Framingham Study.
44. Chan J M, Stampfer M J, Ma J, Gann P H, Gaziano J M and Giovannucci E L,"Dairy products, calcium, and prostate cancer risk in the Physicians' Health Study", Am. J. Clin. Nutr. (2001), 74 (4): pp. 549-554.
45. Hickey K, Do K A and Green A,"Smoking and prostate cancer", Epidemiol. Rev. (2001), 23 (1): pp. 115-125
46. Dennis L K and Hayes R B, "Alcohol and prostate cancer", Epidemiol. Rev. (2001), 23 (1): pp. 110-114.
47. Lee I M, Sesso H D, Chen J J and Paffenbarger R S Jr."Does physical activity play a role in the prevention of prostate cancer?", Epidemiol. Rev. (2001), 23 (1): pp. 132-137.
48. Leitzmann M F, Platz E A, Stampfer M J, Willett W C and Giovannucci E, "Ejaculation frequency and subsequent risk of prostate cancer", JAMA (2004), 291 (13): ppp. 1,578-1,586.
49. Peterson H B and Howards S S, "Vasectomy and prostate cancer: the evidence to date", Fertil. Steril. (1998), 70 (2): pp. 201-203. Notes: GENERAL NOTE: PIP:TJ: FERTILITY AND STERILITY.
50. Rosenblatt K A,Wicklund K G and Stanford J L, "Sexual factors and the risk of prostate cancer", Am. J. Epidemiol. (2001), 153 (12): pp. 1,152-1,158.
51. Dennis L K, Lynch C F and Torner J C, "Epidemiologic association between prostatitis and prostate cancer", Urology (2002), 60 (1): pp. 78-83.
52. Platz E A and De Marzo A M, "Epidemiology of inflammation and prostate cancer", J. Urol. (2004), 171 (2 Pt 2): pp. S36-40.
53. Smith R A, Cokkinides V and Eyre H J, "American Cancer Society guidelines for the early detection of cancer, 2003", CA Cancer J. Clin. (2003), 53 (1): pp. 27-43. Notes: CORPORATE NAME:American Cancer Society.
54. Catalona W J, Antenor J A, Roehl K A and Moul J W,"Screening for prostate cancer in high risk populations", J.Urol. (2002), 168 (5): pp. 1,980-1,983; discussion p. 1,983-1,984.
55. Bunting P S,"Screening for prostate cancer with prostate-specific antigen: beware the biases", Clin. Chim.Acta. (2002), 315 (1- 2): pp. 71-97.
56. Sarma A V and Schottenfeld D, "Prostate cancer incidence, mortality, and survival trends in the United States: 1981-2001", Semin. Urol. Oncol. (2002), 20 (1): pp. 3-9.
57. Greenlee R T, Murray T, Bolden S and Wingo P A,"Cancer statistics, 2000", CA Cancer J. Clin. (2000), 50 (1): pp. 7-33.
58.Chu K C,Tarone R E and Freeman H P,"Trends in prostate cancer mortality among black men and white men in the United States", Cancer (2003), 97 (6): pp. 1,507-1,516.
59. Satariano W A, Ragland K E and Van Den Eeden S K, "Cause of death in men diagnosed with prostate carcinoma", Cancer (1998), 83 (6): pp. 1,180-1,188.
60. Carroll P, Coley C, McLeod D, Schellhammer P, Sweat G,Wasson J et al.,"Prostate-specific antigen best practice policy--part II: prostate cancer staging and post-treatment follow-up", Urology (2001), 57 (2): pp. 225-229.
61.Paquette E L, Sun L, Paquette L R, Connelly R, Mcleod D G and Moul J W, "Improved prostate cancer-specific survival and other disease parameters: impact of prostate-specific antigen testing", Urology (2002), 60 (5): pp. 756-759.
62. Albertsen P C, Hanley J A, Gleason D F and Barry M J, "Competing risk analysis of men aged 55 to 74 years at diagnosis managed conservatively for clinically localized prostate cancer", JAMA (1998), 280 (11): pp. 975-980.
63. Barqawi A,Thompson I M and Crawford E D, "Prostate cancer chemoprevention: an overview of United States trials", J. Urol. (2004), 171 (2 Pt 2): pp. S5-8; p. discussion S9.
64. Thompson I M, Klein E A, Lippman S M, Coltman C A and Djavan B, "Prevention of prostate cancer with finasteride: US/European perspective", Eur. Urol. (2003), 44 (6): pp. 650-655.
